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  The Eighty Years War - The...

  Kelly Mass

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  The war between the protestant Netherlands, mostly led by William of Orange, and Catholic Spain, was one of the marks in Dutch history. This war has determined the beliefs of many people who now live about the three rivers that go through the country: Most of the people north of the rivers are protestant, and most of the believers below them (even throughout Belgium as well) are Catholic. This is no coincidence. 
  The war in the 1600s has become a symbol of Dutch resistance, independence, and the royal family (of Orange). In that sense, traditions date back hundreds of years, some them that have their roots in this century. Learn more about what caused the 80 years of war between these two countries, how France was involved, and how it helped form the boundaries and borders of those countries today.

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  Spain’s Explorers in the Age of...

  Editors Charles River

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  The most seminal event of the last millennium might also be its most controversial. As schoolchildren have been taught for over 500 years, “In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue.” In October of that year, the Italian Christopher Columbus immortalized himself by landing in the New World and beginning the process of European settlement in the Americas for Spain, bringing the Age of Exploration to a new hemisphere with him. Ironically, the Italian had led a Spanish expedition, in part because the Portugese rejected his offers in the belief that sailing west to Asia would take too long. 
  If Columbus and Cortés were the pioneers of Spain’s new global empire, Pizarro consolidated its immense power and riches, and his successes inspired a further generation to expand Spain’s dominions to unheard of dimensions. Furthermore, he participated in the forging of a new culture: like Cortés, he took an indigenous mistress with whom he had two mixed-race children, and yet the woman has none of the lasting fame of Cortés’s Doña Marina. With all of this in mind, it is again remarkable that Pizarro remains one of the less well-known and less written about of the explorers of his age. 
  Today Ferdinand Magellan is remembered as the first man to circumnavigate the globe, an ironic legacy given that he died half a world away from completing that journey. But though it ended catastrophically for Magellan and most of his crew, his expedition accomplished its objective, and in economic terms, the opening up of new trade routes with Asia was a more significant development than the conquest of the Americas for the Europeans of the early 16th century.

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  Second Book of Timothy The - The...

  Various Authors

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  The Second Book of Timothy is one of the three pastoral epistles traditionally attributed to Paul the Apostle. Addressed to Timothy, a fellow missionary it is traditionally considered to be the last epistle he wrote before his death. Although the pastorals are written under Paul's name, they are different from his other epistles, and since the early 19th century, scholars have increasingly seen them as the work of an unknown student of Paul's doctrine. They do not address Paul's common themes, such as the believers' unity with Christ, and they reflect a church hierarchy that is more organized and defined than the church was in Paul's time.

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  Great Britain - History of...

  Kelly Mass

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  This is a book with 10 different topics, all related to the history of Great Britain. The topics are the following: 
  Horatio Nelson 
  The British Raj 
  The Cathars 
  The Great Fire of London 
  Partition of Ireland 
  The Irish Potato Famine 
  Ghosts of Scotland 
  Scottish History 
  Wars of Scottish Independence 
  William Wallace

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  A Rare Recording of Frank Lloyd...

  Frank Lloyd Wright

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  Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8, 1867 to April 9, 1959), born in Richland Center, Wisconsin, was an American architect, designer, writer, and educator. He designed more than 1,000 structures over a creative period of 70 years. Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing architects worldwide through his works and mentoring hundreds of apprentices in his Taliesin Fellowship. Wright believed in designing in harmony with humanity and the environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was exemplified in Fallingwater (1935), which has been called "the best all-time work of American architecture." The following audio clips are from the late 1950s.

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  From Prosperity to Peril - The...

  Anya Solace

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  The economic history of Argentina is deeply rooted in its colonial past, which shaped much of the country’s early economic structures and patterns. Argentina, as part of the Spanish Empire, was initially regarded as a peripheral region, with its economic activities largely shaped by the colonial powers’ interests. The Spanish imposed a rigid economic system in which the colony’s natural resources were exploited to benefit Spain, primarily through the export of silver, agricultural products, and other raw materials. This colonial legacy set the stage for Argentina’s agricultural-based economy and influenced the development of land ownership patterns and labor systems that would persist well into the 19th century. 
  During the colonial period, the region that would become Argentina was an important supplier of agricultural products, such as cattle and grains, to the Spanish Empire. Large estates, known as estancias, were established, and much of the labor force was provided by indigenous peoples and African slaves. The development of these estates led to the establishment of an agrarian economy that would remain a cornerstone of Argentina’s economic identity. The concentration of land and wealth in the hands of a few, however, created significant economic inequalities that would become a recurring theme in Argentina’s history. 
  Following Argentina’s independence from Spain in 1816, the young nation faced significant challenges in establishing its economic identity. The economic institutions that had been put in place by the colonial powers were largely centered around the needs of the empire, and there was little infrastructure to support an autonomous economy. The new republic was faced with the task of building a functional economy that could support its growing population while integrating itself into the global economy.

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