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  Crusading against the Ottomans:...

  Editors Charles River

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  In terms of geopolitics, perhaps the most seminal event of the Middle Ages was the successful Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1453. The city had been an imperial capital as far back as the 4th century, when Constantine the Great shifted the power center of the Roman Empire there, effectively establishing two almost equally powerful halves of antiquity’s greatest empire. Constantinople would continue to serve as the capital of the Byzantine Empire even after the Western half of the Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century. Naturally, the Ottoman Empire would also use Constantinople as the capital of its empire after their conquest effectively ended the Byzantine Empire, and thanks to its strategic location, it has been a trading center for years and remains one today under the Turkish name of Istanbul. 
  Naturally, the Byzantines and Europeans didn’t take the Ottoman incursions laying down, and in the generations before the Ottoman victory at Constantinople, European alliances frequently tried to check Ottoman advances, couching their campaigns in the terms of crusading. One of them came near the end of the 14th century, and it presaged what was to come in the 15th century. 
  The Ottoman campaigns of the 14th century would provide the context for the events that led to the Battle of Nicopolis. One of the last major crusades was launched in 1396 by Pope Boniface IX, and the timing was perfect for the European kingdoms to unite and form a strong threat to the Ottomans. The 100-year war between France and England was in a state of truce, and King Richard II had just married Princess Isabella of France. Thus, both the English and the Franks would be able to send forces to join in a crusade, and so would Hungary, Bulgaria, Venice, Genoa, Croatia, Wallachia, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Knights Hospitaller.

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  Permian Period The: The History...

  Editors Charles River

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  Among the most interesting of the prehistoric eras is the Permian age, the most extreme period in the planet’s history. It spanned 47 million years, beginning with an ice age, warming, and ending with the most cataclysmic volcanic episode in the planet’s history. The great bulk of all life on the Earth was almost immediately snuffed out, barely crawling back over the following 10 to 30 million years, and it set the stage for the “Age of Dinosaurs.” 
  	What is termed by some as the “Pennsylvanian” or “Carboniferous” period prepared the emergence of the Permian age. Named for the abundance of rocks from the period found in the state of Pennsylvania, many prefer the term “Silesian” or “Carboniferous” era. In the preceding “Mississippian era,” warm, shallow seas disappeared causing serious upheaval to marine life in a tendency toward glaciation.  
  	“Significant glaciation” marks the beginning of the Carboniferous immediately preceding the Permian. Carboniferous glaciation began in the late Ordovician Period long before. The eventual Andean-Saharan glaciation, a minor ice age, occurred later in the Silurian Age. These were all remnants of the “Snowball Earth” period of the Cryogenian. 
  	The resultant sea level drop as the Carboniferous ice age set in produced conditions much like that of today, with ice on both poles, wet tropics near the equator and temperate regions in between. Despite similar conditions, the Carboniferous lacked the output of greenhouse gases produced by humans. 
  	Fragments of plates collided as continents were still fusing into the supercontinent Pangea. During glaciation, “latitudinal climactic belts were widespread.” Permian rocks have been found on all the continents and some have been displaced “considerable distances from their original latitudes” in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras that followed the Permian.

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  The Expansion of the European...

  Fredrich Hazelton

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  The European Union (EU) stands as one of the most ambitious projects of regional integration in modern history. The concept of a unified Europe, born out of the devastation of World War II, has evolved from an economic community among six founding nations to a political and economic powerhouse with 27 member states. The expansion of the EU has been a gradual process, driven by the desire to promote peace, stability, and prosperity across the continent. This expansion has not only reshaped the political landscape of Europe but also influenced the global order in profound ways. 
    
  The early history of the EU was marked by the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957, aimed at fostering economic cooperation and reducing the likelihood of future conflicts. Over time, the EEC transformed into the European Union, encompassing broader goals such as political cooperation, human rights, and environmental standards. Each enlargement of the EU has brought new nations into this framework, solidifying the idea of a united Europe. The process of integrating new member states, however, has not been without its challenges. Issues of economic disparity, political alignment, and social integration have tested the limits of the union and sparked debates about the future direction of the EU. 
    
  The most significant expansion occurred in 2004, when ten countries, predominantly from Central and Eastern Europe, joined the EU in a historic enlargement. This expansion marked the end of the Cold War divide and brought former communist nations into the European fold. Yet, it also highlighted the complexities of integrating countries with differing political histories, economic conditions, and social structures. The subsequent expansions in 2007 and 2013 saw Romania, Bulgaria, and Croatia join the EU, furthering the union’s reach into the Balkans.

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  Men of 18 in 1918 - Memories of...

  Frederick James Hodges

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  An astounding account of one young infantryman's personal experience of the Western Front in the last year of World War One. 
   
   
   
  Perfect for fans of Peter Hart, Max Hastings, and Barbara W. Tuchman. 
   
   
   
  In the spring of 1918 German forces broke through Allied lines in a last-ditch attempt to overcome their enemies. To hold back this tide young, inexperienced men from France, Britain, the United States, Australia, and Canada were sent into war against battle-hardened and desperate German soldiers. 
   
   
   
  What was it like to be an eighteen-year-old and sent to the frontlines in the First World War? 
   
   
   
  Frederick James Hodges was one of these young men and his book, Men of 18 in 1918, provides insight into the ordeals of an ordinary soldier who left Britain as a teenager but returned as a man having witnessed the full horrors of war. 
   
   
   
  Hodges charts his progress through the conflict from his short period of training to being thrown into defending Allied lines against the onslaught before being ordered, as part of Britain's prime assault troops, into a ninety-five-day non-stop attack which only ended with the armistice of November 1918.

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  The Art and Science of Small Talk

  Nathan Quincy

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  The Art and Science of Small Talk: Learn How to Talk to Anyone with Grace and CharismaSmall talk is a powerful yet underutilized tool that can go a long way if done gracefully. The truth is, many dread this type of conversation and shy away from it as much as possible. If you are one of them, fret not, because you are about to learn the techniques to gracefully jumpstart a conversation with anyone in any situation. But whether we like it or not, there’s no way we can escape small talk because it is part of everyday interactions. Humans are social creatures and we use conversation as our way to emotionally connect with each other. In this audiobook, you will learn ways to improve not just your communication skills but also your social skills through the art and science of small talk. It will help you improve your communication and social skills through the art of small talk.This audiobook will cover the following topics- The What, Why, When, and How of Small Talk- The Science of Small Talk- Your Roadmap to Mastering Small Talk- “Small Talk Cheat-sheet” to Gracefully Navigate Every Situation- How to Talk to Anyone with Charisma- How to Gracefully Exit a Conversation- And many more!Small talk promotes trust, sincerity, and spontaneity from people to build great connections. To learn how you can improve your communication skills, download your copy of this audiobook today!

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  Opium Wars and Sino-Japanese...

  Editors Charles River

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  The 19th century saw the rise of one of the largest, most powerful empires of the modern era. The sun never set on the British Empire, whose holdings spanned the globe, in one form or another. Its naval supremacy linked the Commonwealth of Canada with the colonies in South Africa and India, and through them trade flowed east and west. An integral but underutilized part of this vast trade network included China, a reclusive Asian kingdom closed off from the Western world that desired none of its goods. Unfortunately for China, the British had the might of an empire and economic force, not to mention modern arms, on their side. Breaking into China’s lucrative trade markets nearly destroyed the nation, severely discredited the Chinese dynasty, wreaked havoc on its people, and further propelled Britain’s empire into a dominant economic and military position. The collision of these two empires took many years and caused much bloodshed. In fact, the troubles started well before the eventual hostilities, festering as frustration mounted until finally boiling over. 
  Though both nations modernized, and China far outweighed Japan in terms of men and materiel potential, the island nation handily won its first modern war. The conflict resulted in Japan’s short-term gains in the wake of victory, and the long term disaster for both sides’ new roles in Asia, for with the end of Chinese dominance in East Asia came a new era for the region as a whole.  
  In 1937, the Empire of Japan once more went to war with China, a nation broken into petty warlord fiefdoms and wracked by civil war. The most modern Asian nation enacted a brutal campaign over the fragmented realms that made up China, committing atrocities just as horrendous as their Axis ally in Europe. Despite this, the sheer size of China, coupled with Japan’s overextension, allowed the larger, less developed nation to endure.

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