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  Sahih Al Bukhari English...

  Imam Bukhari, Translator - Dr....

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  Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī is a collection of hadīth compiled by Abu Abdullāh Muhammad Ibn Ismā`īl al-Bukhārī(rahimahullāh). His collection is recognized by the overwhelming majority of the Muslim world to be one of the most authentic collections of the Sunnah of the Prophet (peace be upon him). It contains roughly 7563 hadīth (with repetitions) in 97 books. The translation provided here is by Dr. M. Muhsin Khan. 
  Volume 4 contains hadith 2738-3648 of 7563 in book 55-61: 
  55 The Book Of Wills and Testaments (Wasaayaa) Hadith 2738-2781 of 7563 English 
  56 The Book Of Fighting for the Cause of Allah (Jihad) Hadith 2782-3090 of 7563 English 
  57 The Book Of One-fifth of Booty to the Cause of Allah (Obligations of Khumus) H 3091-3155 of 7563 English 
  58 The Book of Al-Jizya and Stoppage of War Hadith 3156-3189 of 7563 English 
  59 The Book of The Beginning of Creation Hadith 3190-3325 of 7563 English 
  60 The Book Of The stories of the Prophets Hadith 3326-3488 of 7563 English 
  61 The Book Of Virtues and Merits of the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions Hadith 3489-3648 of 7563 English

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  Persecution of Jews in Medieval...

  Editors Charles River

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  The term “Reconquista” is a Spanish word transferred to the English language to represent the nearly 800 years in which the Moors and Christians struggled against one another for control of the Iberian Peninsula. Although the phrase typically refers to the time when the numerous Christian kingdoms mobilized to overthrow the Islamic Caliphates set up in the peninsula, the term can additionally be used to refer to the entire situation starting in the 8th century, when Islamic civilization slowly moved out of North Africa, across the Mediterranean Sea, and into southern Iberia.  
  	Not surprisingly, three religions attempting to coexist during medieval times resulted in nearly incessant conflicts, marked by high taxation, disparate societies, rigid cultural controls, and systemic violence. Despite the odds, these three religions managed to live in a state of quasi-acceptance and peace in most of the major cities like Cordoba and Toledo, with sporadic warfare occurring on the borders between Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms near the Pyrenees Mountains. Muslims, Christians, and Jews would attempt to reorganize their societies several times over the centuries through warfare, always with Jews on the lower rungs and Christians and Muslims fighting it out above them.   
  	By the end of the 14th century, the distrust and prejudice against Jewish communities quickly spread to Spain. In 1391, James II of Aragon boarded the bandwagon; backed into a corner by the Roman Catholic Church, he established a law that banned Jews from Spain altogether. Jews were shunned in droves, and the remaining were given an ultimatum to either convert/revert to Catholicism or face immediate death. Yet another wave of gory pogroms ensued across the country, especially in Barcelona.

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  Crossing the Line - Finding...

  Sarah Towle

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  It was family separation and “kids in cages” that drove Sarah Towle to the U.S. southern border. On discovering the many-headed hydra that is the U.S. immigration system—and the heroic determination of those caught under its knee—she could never look away again. Crossing the Line: Finding America in the Borderlands charts Sarah’s journey from outrage to activism to abolition as she exposes, layer by “broken” layer, the global deterrence to detention to deportation complex that is failing everyone—save the profiteers and demagogues who benefit from it. 
  Deftly weaving together oral storytelling, history, and memoir, Sarah illustrates how the U.S. has led the retreat from post-WWII commitments to protecting human rights. Yet within the web of normalized cruelty, she finds hope and inspiration in the extraordinary acts of ordinary people who prove, every day, there is a better way. By amplifying their voices and celebrating their efforts, Sarah reveals that we can welcome with dignity those most in need of safety and compassion. In unmasking the real root causes of the so-called “crisis” in human migration, she urges us to act before we travel much farther down our current course—one which history will not soon forgive, or forget.

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  Homo habilis and Homo erectus:...

  Editors Charles River

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  The evolutionary path from the original primates to modern man is a long one and has taken many twists and turns, but naturally, as the fossil record grows, scientists gain a more complete understanding of our own mental and physical history in terms of genetics and anatomy. However, the correct order and relationships of the various specimen types are difficult to pin down. Many representative samples have been found in such minute amounts as to not preclude anomalies. They have been discovered in various stages of wear. Modern features did not occur simultaneously or uniformly, taking millions of years to become manifest in later types. Up to the present day’s Homo sapiens, examples of the main types have been hybrids of older and more modern features. 
  	One of the earliest species of the genus Homo to be discovered is Homo habilis, which basically means “handy man.” The name comes from the belief at the time of its discovery that this species was the first to start using stone tools. The first fossils to be uncovered in Olduvai Gorge were from the same stratigraphic layer as simple stone tools. Fossils of the crania and postcranial skeleton for this species have been found in both eastern and southern Africa and date to around 2.5–1.6 million years ago.  
  	Given the gradual changes that take place in evolution, Homo habilis shares a number of characteristics that are similar to the genus Australopithecus, such as in the postcranial elements. That said, the size and shape of the Homo habilis skull are markedly different. The size of the brain is much larger relative to the size of the body, being around 680 cc. In order to house a larger brain, the skull features a more vertical frontal bone, creating a more vertical forehead. The brow ridges that sit on the lower portion of the frontal bone are also reduced in size.

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  The Sioux Wars - The History of...

  Charles River Editors

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  From the “Trail of Tears” to Wounded Knee and Little Bighorn, the narrative of American history is incomplete without the inclusion of the Native Americans that lived on the continent before European settlers arrived in the 16th and 17th centuries. Since the first contact between natives and settlers, tribes like the Sioux, Cherokee, and Navajo have both fascinated and perplexed outsiders with their history, language, and culture. 
  	The history of the Sioux is replete with constant reminders of the consequences of both their accommodation of and resistance to American incursions into their territory by pioneering white settlers pushing further westward during the 19th century. Some Sioux leaders and their bands resisted incoming whites, while others tried to accommodate them, but the choice often had little impact on the ultimate outcome. Crazy Horse, who was never defeated in battle by U.S. troops, surrendered to them in 1877, only to be bayoneted to death by soldiers attempting to imprison him. Black Kettle, who flew a large American flag from his lodge to indicate his friendship with the white man, was shot to death by soldiers under George Custer’s command in 1868. Throughout the 19th century, the U.S. government and its officials in the West adopted a policy of dividing the Sioux into two groups: “Treaty Indians” and “Non-treaty Indians.” Often they used these groups against each other or used one group to influence another, but the end was always the same. They were forced off the land where they resided, their populations were decimated by disease, and they were forced onto reservations. 
  	Despite being one of the most erstwhile foes the U.S. government faced during the Indian Wars, the Sioux and their most famous leaders were grudgingly admired and eventually immortalized by the very people they fought. Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse remain household names due to their leadership of the Sioux at the fateful Battle of the Little Bighorn.

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  SURVIVE - Why We Do What We Do

  Jerry Pannone

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  We’re coming to understand that life in this world is that of an extended family, not just from a human perspective, but from all manner and forms of sentient organisms. The purpose of Survive is not to enumerate the processes of every kind of life up the evolutionary tree, from bacteria to humans, but to look for the common denominators on that tree and to explore what motivators of all life forms share with greater emphasis placed on primates in general, but humans in particular throughout the journey of this book. And, although the concept of survival is evident in a biological sense, it expands far beyond simple physical survival for the human being. The questions of psychological, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual survival, as well as the overriding question of identity all play a role. Who is the “me” that is fighting to survive? That is the existential question we struggle consciously or unconsciously to address.

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