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  Zoroastrianism: The History and...

  Charles River Editors

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  The Sasanian Empire was important for a number of reasons. Besides being the last of three great Persian dynasties, they carried on many Persian cultural traditions relating to religion and kingship. The Sasanians fostered and promoted the native religion of Zoroastrianism to the point of persecuting other religions from time to time. It was during the Sasanian period that the numerous Zoroastrian hymns, prayers, and rituals were collected under one book, known as the Avesta.  
  	Thanks to the Sasanians’ efforts with regard to religion, modern scholars know much more about Zoroastrianism than they would have if the religion continued to disseminate orally. Their efforts also protected Zoroastrian knowledge in later years after the dynasty was long gone and Islam became ascendant in Persia. Zoroastrianism is technically still a living religion today, but the religion is mysterious and not widely known among those who don’t study it, and historians themselves are divided over when the religion’s prophet lived and when the religion was officially adopted in Persia. Zoroastrianism’s historical development has also failed to intrigue significant numbers of people, perhaps due to its geographical location and cultural background. Zoroastrianism developed among the Persian people, who have traditionally not been part of the standard Western, early Islamic, or Far Eastern cultural groupings, and when Persia later became part of the greater Islamic world, it was to the detriment of Zoroastrianism. Finally, Zoroastrianism is a “closed” religion, which has also kept it shrouded in mystery to a certain degree. Although contemporary Zoroastrians are quite open about their faith and willing to help non-Zoroastrian scholars, converts are rarely accepted by the faithful, adding a sense of insularity to the faith.

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  Delhi Sultanate The: The History...

  Editors Charles River

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  India has been the location of many different empires throughout its long history. The Indus Valley Civilization was home to one of the world’s first civilizations more than 5,000 years ago, which was followed by the Aryan-Vedic culture and then a host of other kingdoms that flourished across the Sub-Continent. India has also been the birthplace of many religions. The Vedic religion of the Aryans evolved into the Hindu religion, and Buddhism and Jainism were also born in India. By the Middle Ages, India was home to many different religions and ethnic groups, with dozens of languages being spoken, making India less of a single, unified country and more of a land of many countries. Despite India’s tradition of cultural and political pluralism, several rulers attempted to place the entire Sub-Continent under the rule of one dynasty or government with a dominant religion. Most of these would-be rulers were far from successful, although a few came close, setting the template for later conquerors.  
  	The Delhi Sultanate was comprised of five dynasties that expanded their borders, and Islam, at sword point, but also through diplomacy and trade. The Delhi Sultanate became known as a state that welcomed the expertise of foreigners, no matter their religion, and promoted the welfare of its citizens through a host of social programs. Eventually, the Delhi Sultanate grafted ideas and inspiration from India’s pre-Islamic past with those of Islam to create a state that was quite unique and powerful. The Delhi sultans were themselves descended from Turks and brought with them ideas from Persia. Furthermore, as their empire grew, they invited scholars from throughout the Islamic world to their country, and as Muslim scholars, scientists, and administrators from the Near East made their way into India, the Delhi sultans also incorporated some of the cultural ideas of the native Hindu Indians to create a state that was as unique as any the world had ever seen.

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  Structuralism - Philosophy and...

  Hector Davidson

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  Structuralism is an intellectual movement that emerged in the early to mid-20th century, primarily influenced by the works of linguists, anthropologists, and philosophers. Its foundational premise is that human culture, including language, myths, and social institutions, can be understood through underlying structures that govern them. These structures are not always immediately visible but influence how individuals and societies behave, think, and organize themselves. 
  At its core, structuralism asserts that elements of human culture must be studied in relation to one another within a larger system. For example, language can only be fully understood when the relationships between words and their meanings are considered. This perspective contrasts with earlier intellectual traditions that focused on individual elements, seeking meaning through isolated concepts. Instead, structuralism emphasizes the interconnections and patterns that form the basis of human existence. 
  The intellectual origins of structuralism can be traced back to the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. In his work, Saussure argued that language is a system of signs, each of which acquires meaning not by its inherent qualities but through its relationship to other signs. His concept of the "signifier" (the word or symbol) and the "signified" (the concept or meaning) set the stage for structuralist thought. Saussure’s approach highlighted the importance of studying language as a system of differences, where meanings are produced not in isolation but in opposition to other meanings.

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  Quakers and the Amish The: The...

  Editors Charles River

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  Few today know much about the Quakers. Whenever the subject of Quakerism slips into conversation, most picture a rosy-cheeked fellow in a simple black overcoat, and a wide brim hat atop his thick, cloud-white hair, inspired by the famous logo of the Quaker Oats company. In spite of the stereotype, Quakers today come in all colors, shapes, and sizes, with the more liberal folk sporting trendy haircuts, tattoos, and various piercings. They call themselves “Friends,” a starkly different but very devout following of God. They strive for a world empowered by peace and acceptance, an ambitious mission fueled by diversity, blind to race, gender, or creed. 
  Buggies, straw hats, long and plain dresses in shades of blue and black, charming log cabins reminiscent of the Little House on the Prairie – this is often the mental image that comes to mind when one thinks of the Amish. Nowadays, many have become accustomed to being within a 10 foot radius of at least 3 pieces of technology every hour of the day. World news and current events has never been more readily available, accessible by just a touch of a fingertip. Yet there exists a collection of cultures worldwide that steer clear of contemporary society for a range of reasons. 
  Americans have heard of the Amish, but most know little about them. They are often seen as unconventional and strictly religious, but quiet, calm folk who keep to themselves. Those who have heard of them know of their rejection of electricity and most, if not all modern aspects of life. Those who have taken a gander at the dozens of “reality shows” that have sprung up over recent years may have even heard of the ever-so-famous – but often inaccurately depicted – Rumspringa. But beyond the buggies and prayer bonnets lies an intriguing culture that has remained strictly loyal to its roots.

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  Economic Creatures - Book two -...

  Denny N. Dwight

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  Book 2 of 3: Hardy has a hot lead that could finally provide him with answers to his questions. Together with Madeline, Frank, Dimitrij and Esra, he takes the dangerous journey and finds new allies in Harry and his community. But Hardy's fight against the creature has left traces that are becoming more and more obvious and seem inexplicable. After a brutal attack on Madeline, the community is surprisingly attacked by undead. With an old locomotive, they cross the vast steppes of Russia and repeatedly get into dicey situations. Shortly before Moscow, a ruthless and well-organized group appears in an attack helicopter, who only want one thing - Hardy. Using Madeline and Frank as leverage, Hardy complies with every request from Castor, a sick psychopath. Hardy meets would-be philanthropist Lydia, who resides in a well-protected mansion and apparently knows more about him than he does. Over dinner, the situation between the parties escalates and Hardy finds himself in a seemingly hopeless situation. Meanwhile, a horde of undead makes its way to the supposedly safe estate. The chaos is pre-programmed. Denny N. Dwight's cliché-laden declaration of love to the horror and action films of the 80s, 90s and early 2000s enters its second round. Again, he makes use of numerous quotes and allusions from films of these eras. In addition, the author brings up many topics that have been making the rounds among conspiracy theorists for years.

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  Fort Pillow and the Crater: The...

  Editors Charles River

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  As far as skirmishes go, Fort Pillow was a completely unremarkable fight. Before attacking, Forrest demanded the unconditional surrender of the Union garrison, a normal custom of his, and he warned the Union commanding officer that he would not be responsible for his soldiers’ actions if the warning went unheeded. What made Fort Pillow markedly different was that a sizable amount of the Union garrison defending the Fort was comprised of black soldiers, which particularly enraged Confederate soldiers whenever they encountered those they viewed as former slaves in the field. It is still unclear exactly how the fighting unfolded, but what is clear is that an unusually high percentage of Union soldiers were killed, and the Confederates were accused of massacring black soldiers after they had surrendered. Primary sources tell conflicting accounts of what happened at Battle of Fort Pillow, leaving scholars to piece together the battle and determine whether Confederate soldiers purposely shot Union soldiers after they had surrendered. 
  The mine that precipitated the Battle of the Crater during the Siege of Petersburg produced one of the most amazing scenes of the entire Civil War. The force of the explosion created a crater that was nearly 200 feet long, 100 feet wide, and 30 feet deep. Remnants of the crater can still be seen today. But through a mix of bad luck, fog of war, and incompetent leadership, the Union assault that followed the explosion was badly bungled. Instead of capturing Petersburg, the Battle of the Crater was a Union debacle that left more than 4,000 Union soldiers killed, wounded, or captured. The Confederates lost about 1,500, with nearly 300 of them being casualties of the initial explosion. The Battle of the Crater didn’t help the Confederates much in front of Petersburg, but it remains the most memorable and controversial battle of the entire siege.

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