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  Carlist Wars and the Spanish...

  Editors Charles River

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  Thinking of Spain as a modern nation state today distorts the complicated reality that the Iberian Peninsula faced in the past. Spain was a nation in progress, consisting of regions united under the Spanish crown, but with strong regional identities based on different historical and cultural experiences. The largest entities were the kingdoms of León and Castile, but Spain also included the kingdoms of Navarre, Andalusia, Granada, Jaén, Aragon, and Valencia. There were also the principalities of Asturias and Catalonia, the lordship of Vizcaya, and both Guipúzcoa and Alava were “exempted provinces.” Navarre, Aragon, and Catalonia had separate Cortes, which were versions of parliaments (Parker 18-19). This complex system of entities granted privilege to local power structures over the concept of a unified nation and made administration difficult, because there were few standards that applied to all of Spain. Many of the regions had special laws that respected and allowed traditional institutions, administrative patterns, and cultural patterns. These local and regional rights were called fueros and were fiercely defended against centralization. 
  	The Spanish Civil War has exerted a powerful impact on the historical imagination. Without question, the conflict was a key moment in the 20th century, a precursor to World War II, and an encapsulation of the rise of extremist movements in the 1930s, but it was also a complex narrative in and of itself, even as it offered a truly international theatre of war. It marked one of the seminal moments, along with the 1929 Wall Street Crash, between the two apocalyptic wars of the early 20th century, and since it occurred between 1936 and 1939, Spain proved to be a testing ground of tactics, weaponry, and ideology ahead of World War II. 

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  Rise and Fall of the Third Reich...

  Editors Charles River

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  The early 1930s were a tumultuous period for German politics, even in comparison to the ongoing transition to the modern era that caused various forms of chaos throughout the rest of the world. In the United States, reliance on the outdated gold standard and an absurdly parsimonious monetary policy helped bring about the Great Depression. Meanwhile, the Empire of Japan began its ultimately fatal adventurism with the invasion of Manchuria, alienating the rest of the world with the atrocities it committed. Around the same time, Gandhi began his drive for the peaceful independence of India through nonviolent protests against the British. 
  	It was in Germany, however, that the strongest seeds of future tragedy were sown. The struggling Weimar Republic had become a breeding ground for extremist politics, including two opposed and powerful authoritarian entities: the right-wing National Socialists and the left-wing KPD Communist Party. As the 1930s dawned, these two totalitarian groups held one another in a temporary stalemate, enabling the fragile ghost of democracy to continue a largely illusory survival for a few more years.  
  	That stalemate was broken in dramatic fashion on a bitterly cold night in late February 1933, and it was the Nazis who emerged decisively as the victors. A single act of arson against the famous Reichstag building proved to be the catalyst that propelled Adolf Hitler to victory in the elections of March 1933, which set the German nation irrevocably on the path towards World War II. That war would plunge much of the planet into an existential battle that ultimately cost an estimated 60 million lives. 

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  Dutch East India Company and...

  Editors Charles River

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  To many, the mention of maritime merchants evokes an imagery of growling pirates donned in their stereotypical hats and a colorful parrot perched upon their shoulders. These nautical rascals wander the high seas in search of treasure and adventure. Though that imagery may be inaccurate, the real life companies that once dominated international waters operated on a similar thirst for conquest and riches. 
  	Perhaps the most famous – or as many would put it, infamous – of these naval corporations was the Dutch East India Company, also known as V O C. Established around the beginning of the 17th century, this nautical behemoth of a corporation was determined to squeeze everyone else out of the market. Vested with the power to wage war and exterminate any who dared stand in their way, the rest of the world stood by as the unstoppable force took over the whole of international maritime trade. The company would crush its opponents on the way to the top, establishing a monopoly on the global spice trade that would not only rock the world but forever change the course of modern business history.  
  	Likewise, the British East India Company served as one of the key players in the formation of the British Empire. From its origins as a trading company struggling to keep up with its superior Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish competitors to its tenure as the ruling authority of the Indian subcontinent to its eventual hubristic downfall, the East India Company serves as a lens through which to explore the much larger economic and social forces that shaped the formation of a global British Empire. As a private company that became a non-state global power in its own right, the East India Company also serves as a cautionary tale all too relevant to the modern world’s current political and economic situation.

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  How Not To F*CK UP in Medical...

  Aleksander Shur

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  Going to get higher education may be stressful, especially when you want to go to medical field. So, us, as medical students have gathered some ideas, recommendations, tips and lifehacks on how to ace you medical school without too much stress. So consider this your book your mentor into medical field, and wish you all the best in medicine!

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  The Hindu Pantheon - Myths Gods...

  Odessa Nightshade

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  Hindu mythology is one of the oldest and most complex religious traditions in the world. With a vast pantheon of gods, goddesses, and celestial beings, it weaves together myths, legends, and philosophical concepts that have shaped the spiritual landscape of India for thousands of years. Unlike many monotheistic traditions, Hinduism does not center around a single deity but instead embraces a diverse array of divine figures, each representing different aspects of existence. These deities are not merely supernatural beings but embodiments of cosmic principles, making Hindu mythology a unique fusion of religion, philosophy, and storytelling.  
    
  The foundation of Hindu mythology lies in its sacred texts, particularly the Vedas and Puranas. The Vedas, composed over 3,000 years ago, contain hymns and rituals dedicated to early Vedic deities, forming the spiritual bedrock of Hindu belief. The Puranas, written centuries later, expanded upon these traditions, introducing detailed narratives about the lives, battles, and divine exploits of gods like Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi. Together, these texts provide an extensive mythological framework that continues to influence Hindu practices and beliefs to this day.  
    
  One of the central themes in Hindu mythology is the concept of dharma, or cosmic order. The gods play a crucial role in maintaining balance in the universe, ensuring that righteousness prevails over chaos. Myths often depict the eternal struggle between good and evil, with divine beings intervening in the world through incarnations known as avatars. The most well-known avatars belong to Vishnu, who manifests as Rama, Krishna, and other heroic figures to restore harmony when disorder threatens creation. This belief in divine intervention reinforces the idea that morality and duty must be upheld in human life, as they are reflections of the cosmic law. 

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  The art of winning The Startup...

  Yury Yavorsky

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  This book is about setting up your own business and what is the best way to start if you have made up your mind.Multiple tips from the author are illustrated by 25 years of experience and urge the reader to perform gap analysis if you are in business and contain recommendations on avoiding typical mistakes or misconceptions found in American books, and dispel the myths that armchair business wizards create.

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